📘 Colonial Revenue and Labor Systems in India – A UPSC Prelims Capsule

Zamindari System UPSC is a vital topic in the history section of the exam. Understanding its origin, features, and differences with Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems helps build a strong foundation for UPSC 2025 Prelims. This quick guide simplifies the land revenue systems introduced during British rule in India.

🏛️ 1. Zamindari System

• Introduced by: Lord Cornwallis through the Permanent Settlement Act (1793).

• Regions: Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, parts of northern Madras and UP.

• Coverage: ~19% of British India.

• Key Features:

  • Zamindars made hereditary landowners.

  • They collected revenue from peasants and paid a fixed sum to the British.

  • Revenue was permanently fixed, benefitting zamindars.

• Impact:

  • Encouraged absentee landlordism.

  • Peasants were exploited, with no land rights and frequent evictions.

🌾 2. Ryotwari System

• Developed by: Thomas Munro & Alexander Read (1792).

• Fully implemented: In Madras Presidency by 1820.

• Regions: Madras, Bombay, Assam, Berar, Coorg.

• Coverage: ~51% of British India.

• Key Features:

  • Direct settlement with the individual cultivator (Ryot).

  • Revenue based on land quality, revised every 30 years.

  • No intermediaries like zamindars.

🏘️ 3. Mahalwari System

• Introduced by: Holt Mackenzie (1822), modified by William Bentinck & R.M. Bird.

• Regions: North-West Provinces, Punjab, Central India.

• Coverage: ~30% of British India.

• Key Features:

  • Revenue assessed for an entire village unit (Mahal).

  • Village headman or zamindar responsible for tax collection.

  • Periodic revisions allowed, unlike Zamindari.

4. Indigenous and Colonial Labor Systems

1. Dadhi System

A traditional credit system where loans were advanced to traders, often without collateral. This informal system helped promote local trade and commerce in rural India by enabling liquidity and facilitating transactions.

2. Kamiyagathi/Kamigati System

Practiced in Bihar and Odisha, this oppressive agrarian system treated farmers akin to bonded laborers or slaves. Landowners exploited cultivators by tying them to the land through lifelong indebtedness.

3. Tinkathiya System

A notorious colonial practice in Bihar where Indian peasants were forced by European planters to cultivate indigo on 3 out of every 20 parts of their land. This exploitative system led to major revolts, such as Champaran Satyagraha.

4. Hali System

Prevalent in Gujarat, where Hali (bonded laborers) worked for landlords in exchange for protection. The system was highly exploitative, as laborers were considered dependent and subordinate to their landowners.

5. Girmitiya System

During the 19th century, thousands of Indian laborers were sent to work abroad, especially to British colonies like Fiji, Mauritius, and the Caribbean, under indentured contracts (Girmit) for 5–7 years. These laborers faced harsh conditions, leading to a significant Indian diaspora.

6. Balutedari System

A traditional occupational service system in Maharashtra, where specific castes (Balutedars) provided services to the village community. Similar to the Jajmani system, they were compensated in kind or share of harvest, forming a structured village economy.

7. Uritti System

A form of religious land grant (Inam) in Andhra Pradesh, where land was gifted to priests for performing religious duties. These grants were hereditary and tied to temple services or community rituals.

8. Chatusataka

An important Buddhist text written by Aryadeva, a disciple of Nagarjuna. It is composed of 400 verses discussing the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) philosophy and is vital for understanding Mahayana Buddhism.

9. Satyarth Prakash

A seminal reformist text authored by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, not Karsondas Mulji. It promoted rational thinking, denounced idol worship, and became the foundational work of the Arya Samaj movement.

(Note: Karsondas Mulji was a reformist, but not the author of Satyarth Prakash.)

10. Dharm Tritiya Ratna

A work attributed to Jyotirao Phule, highlighting his critique of Brahmanical orthodoxy and promoting the rights of lower castes. It complements his social reform efforts, including women’s education and anti-caste activism.

11. Ijaradari System

Introduced under Warren Hastings, this revenue system involved the auctioning of land revenue collection rights to the highest bidder (Ijardar). It often led to harsh extraction of taxes from peasants, causing agrarian distress.